Gumuruk, South Sudan, June 2021. A woman from Murle ethnic group stands near her burnt tea shop after an attack by an armed group. Thousands have been displaced by conflict in South Sudan, which has deepened the humanitarian crisis and increased vulnerability to modern slavery. Photo Credit: Simon Wohlfahrt / AFP.
Global Slavery Index / Spotlight

Modern slavery: A weapon and consequence of war

Each year, people living in warzones and those fleeing them are subjected to horrific violence and abuse. For children, the elderly, and everyone in between, sexual and gender-based violence, psychological trauma, torture, family separation and disappearance,1 recruitment and use by armed groups, abductions and kidnapping for ransom, forced marriage, forced labour, starvation, and being left for dead,2 are a daily risk. Perpetrators range from the organised to the opportunistic, including smugglers, traffickers, parties to the conflict, community members, and sometimes state actors.

While protracted conflict is a known risk multiplier, our understanding of the intersection between conflict and modern slavery is beginning to grow more nuanced. In the immediate aftermath of crises, including the outbreak of conflict, where governments and systems break down, we may see a temporary suspension of modern slavery and related crimes.3 However, as conflict becomes more protracted, large-scale disruption increases the risk of forced labour and forced marriage. This complexity is evidenced in Ukraine. There has not been an increase in the number of trafficked persons identified largely due to a proactive early warning system, and, unlike many communities who experience conflict, refugees from Ukraine have been largely welcomed into their host communities. Even here, however, there is a need for the international community to stay vigilant due to concerns of under-reporting and ongoing challenges associated with the conflict (see case study on Ukraine in the European and Central Asia regional section). There is a need for more data to truly understand the intersection of conflict and modern slavery in both acute and protracted settings.4

In protracted situations, people struggle to provide for their basic needs or to safely seek protection5 as conflict damages infrastructure and disrupts services.6 At the same time, the breakdown in the rule of law enables perpetrators to act with impunity.7 Parties involved in conflict may recruit children into their ranks, forcibly marry women and girls to their members, or force civilians to perform labour or sexual services.8 Those who try to flee conflict-affected areas may be targeted by traffickers at any point on their journey.9 The countries with protracted conflicts have some of the highest overall vulnerability to modern slavery, and relatedly, a high prevalence of modern slavery. These countries include Afghanistan, Syria, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Mali, Pakistan, Iraq, Central African Republic, Sudan, and Libya.

Women and children are particularly vulnerable to modern slavery in conflict.10 High levels of displacement following the invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 led to concerns that predators masking as volunteers were targeting vulnerable Ukrainian refugees, particularly women and children, in border towns.11 Ukrainian women have been targeted for exploitation,12 including cases of deceptive offers of work abroad that result in sexual exploitation.13 In Afghanistan, the erosion of women’s rights following the Taliban’s takeover of Kabul compounds vulnerabilities to modern slavery, including forced marriage, forced commercial sexual exploitation, and forced labour.14 Under the laws of the Caliphate established by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in 2014, 6,000 Yazidi women and children were captured, forcibly converted, and subjected to domestic servitude and forced marriage.15 Many are allegedly still enslaved in Iraq, Syria, and Türkiye,16 or held captive in ISIS widow camps, such as the al-Hawl detention camp in north-eastern Syria.17 The ways in which children and adolescents are vulnerable to modern slavery also manifest differently depending on gender. While girls are especially vulnerable to commercial sexual exploitation, domestic servitude, or forced marriage, boys are typically at risk of forced labour, forced begging, or of being used in combat or support roles by armed groups or forces.18

Although conflict and forced displacement are known to exacerbate vulnerabilities to modern slavery,19 there is little data on the scale of modern slavery among displaced populations. To address this evidence gap, Walk Free, together with the ILO and IOM, set out to measure the prevalence of certain forms of modern slavery among Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in three countries facing protracted conflict and widespread displacement: South Sudan, Nigeria, and the DRC. Surveys on experiences of modern slavery and related abuses were conducted among IDPs residing in displacement sites in North Kivu province in the DRC, South Sudan, and Northeast Nigeria.20 These surveys captured experiences before and after displacement.

The results indicated that not only were modern slavery and related abuses prevalent among the IDPs surveyed, but they were inherently linked to conflict. One in five IDPs surveyed in North Kivu experienced either forced labour, forced recruitment, or abduction in the preceding five years. In South Sudan, an estimated one in 20 IDPs experienced at least one of these slavery-related abuses, and an estimated one in 60 IDPs in Northeast Nigeria. In all three settings, perpetrators were most often members of the armed groups or armed forces who deliberately exploited displaced populations to further their operations.21 In South Sudan and North Kivu, most forced labour activities (63 per cent and 75 per cent respectively) directly supported armed groups and armed forces, including through fighting, military service, or providing support services such as portering or spying.22 Armed groups also use modern slavery and related abuses as weapons in conflict. In Northeast Nigeria, Boko Haram and its factions have recruited thousands of children to undertake support roles or engage in violence, including suicide attacks. The group has also abducted girls to be forcibly married or provide sexual services to its members.23

“On four occasions I was taken to clear the forest next to the military soldier’s houses and to build their huts. We could not refuse because we would be whipped to death.” Respondent, DRC, 2017

In conflict situations, IDPs are at risk of modern slavery following their displacement, including at displacement sites. For instance, in North Kivu, half of respondents who reported forced labour were living in a displacement site when the forced labour began. Similarly in South Sudan, more than half of forced recruitment cases, 61 per cent of abductions, and 21 per cent of forced labour cases occurred after displacement.24 Though sufficient data was not available for Northeast Nigeria, similar experiences are likely.25 The need for urgent action to address the vulnerabilities inherent in forced displacement is increasingly apparent as understanding of modern slavery in conflict settings grows,26 and the number of IDPs displaced due to conflict and violence increases.27

Responses to modern slavery in conflict settings

Much more needs to be done to prevent modern slavery in conflict-affected areas and to protect those fleeing warzones. Significant gaps remain in the humanitarian response and in peacebuilding and peacekeeping efforts to ensure adequate support to at-risk persons; in fact, humanitarians and peace actors are often denied access.29

To address this gap, Walk Free supported the development of the Global Protection Cluster’s 2020 Guidance to support Protection Clusters to detect, identify, refer, protect, and assist trafficked persons in internal displacement settings.30 Following dissemination of the guidance and the training of humanitarian protection actors, Protection Clusters are increasingly reporting risks of modern slavery and related crimes — abduction, sexual and gender-based violence, recruitment and use of children by armed groups, forced labour, and child and forced marriage — in the areas where they are carrying out their work.31

Despite this, there remains limited data about what works to tackle modern slavery in times of conflict. Systematic reviews have found few peer-reviewed studies exploring the connection between humanitarian disasters and modern slavery32 and even fewer that have made subsequent policy recommendations.

Responding to specific forms of modern slavery in conflict settings requires equally tailored programming. To date, the evaluations33 of programs providing support to former child soldiers34 highlight that traditional disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration programs are not enough to successfully reintegrate child soldiers into their communities. These evaluations emphasise the significance of community-based interventions, non-formal education, and apprenticeships for affected childrenin addition to support for host communities.35 Likewise, responding to child and forced marriage requires gender and age-sensitive approaches, and in the context of humanitarian settings, should be introduced at the early stages of the crisis.36 An analysis of lessons learned emphasises the importance of enhancing the agency of girls, promoting access to support and referral services, empowering girls through education, coordination among relevant actors, and long-term community engagement.37

There is a need for increased action to prevent modern slavery in conflict settings and protect victims and survivors.38 This will require better coordination among humanitarian actors, those working in protection and the anti-slavery sector. Addressing this complex crime within equally complex contexts requires concerted action.

Recommendations for governments

  1. Support the integration of anti-slavery action into humanitarian and peacebuilding responses, including humanitarian response plans, action plans to address grave violations against children in armed conflict, Women, Peace and Security agendas, and transition measures for peacebuilding and peacekeeping.39

  2. Work with humanitarian actors to raise awareness of modern slavery among populations at high risk of displacement. Ensure that needs-based, protection-specific assistance is provided in areas of high displacement, which includes facilitating access to livelihood opportunities, education, medical services, and legal counsel.

  3. Activate safe referral and incident reporting mechanisms in humanitarian settings. Ensure frontline humanitarian and peacebuilding actors are trained on modern slavery concepts and responses, particularly how to identify and refer cases of exploitation to support services.40

  4. Ensure effective access to international protection and family reunification for those affected by conflict and expand resettlement and planned relocation opportunities.

  5. Take urgent action to address the drivers of conflict by reducing gender-based discrimination and violence, improving women’s access to social and economic opportunities, reducing poverty, combating climate change, and taking measures to address community violence based on religious, ethnic, racial, or other statuses.

Endnotes

1United Nations Security Council 2022, Protection of civilians in armed conflict Report of the Secretary-General S/2022/381, pp. 1-20. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/report-secretary-general-protection-civilians-armed-conflict-s2022381-enarruzh. [25 August 2022].
2United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees 2022, Mapping of Protection Services for Vulnerable People on the Move, Including Victims of Trafficking, On Routes Towards the Central and Western Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic, p. 7. Available from: https://reporting.unhcr.org/mapping-of-protection-services-central-west-med-and-atlantic#_ga=2.51450793.1215748089.1663243629-1177399428.1579103558. [20 September 2022].
3Bales, K 2021, ‘What is the link between natural disasters and human trafficking and slavery?’ Journal of Modern Slavery, Slavery and Humanitarian Response Supplemental, vol 6, issue 3. Available from: https://slavefreetoday.org/journal_of_modern_slavery/v6i3a4_What_is_the_Link_between_Natural_Disasters_and_Human_Trafficking_and_Slavery_Bales.pdf. [5 April 2023]; McQuade, A 2021, ‘Older than Troy: slavery as a consequence of human catastrophe’, Journal of Modern Slavery, Slavery and Humanitarian Response Supplemental, vol. 6, issue 3. https://slavefreetoday.org/journal_of_modern_slavery/v6i3a1_Older_than_Troy_slavery_as_a_consequence_of_human%20catastrophe_McQuade.pdf. [5 April 2023].
4Curbelo, V 2021, ‘Exploring the relationship between humanitarian emergencies and human trafficking: A narrative review’, Journal of Modern Slavery, Slavery and Humanitarian Response Supplemental, vol. 6, issue 3. Available from: https://slavefreetoday.org/journal_of_modern_slavery/v6i3a2_Exploring_the_Relationship_Between_Humanitarian_Emergencies_and_%20Human_Trafficking_A_Narrative_Review_Curbelo.pdf. [5 April 2023].
5The Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking in Persons in Humanitarian Crises, pp. 1-2. Available from: https://icat.un.org/sites/g/files/tmzbdl461/files/publications/icat-ib-02-final.pdf. [13 January 2022].
6United Nations Security Council 2022, Protection of civilians in armed conflict Report of the Secretary-General S/2022/381, pp. 1-20. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/report-secretary-general-protection-civilians-armed-conflict-s2022381-enarruzh. [25 August 2022].
7The Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking in Persons in Humanitarian Crises, pp. 1-2. Available from: https://icat.un.org/sites/g/files/tmzbdl461/files/publications/icat-ib-02-final.pdf. [13 January 2022].
8Global Protection Cluster Anti-Trafficking Task Team 2020, An Introductory Guide to Anti-Trafficking Action in Internal Displacement Contexts, Global Protection Cluster, pp. 5-9. Available from: https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/wp-content/uploads/Introductory-Guide-on-Anti-Trafficking-in-IDP-Contexts_2020_FINAL-1.pdf. [13 January 2022]; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2018, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2018, United Nations, pp. 11-12. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2018/GLOTiP_2018_BOOK_web_small.pdf. [13 January 2022]; The Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking in Persons in Humanitarian Crises, pp. 1-2. Available from: https://icat.un.org/sites/g/files/tmzbdl461/files/publications/icat-ib-02-final.pdf. [13 January 2022].
9Global Protection Cluster Anti-Trafficking Task Team 2020, An Introductory Guide to Anti-Trafficking Action in Internal Displacement Contexts, Global Protection Cluster, pp. 5-9. Available from: https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/wp-content/uploads/Introductory-Guide-on-Anti-Trafficking-in-IDP-Contexts_2020_FINAL-1.pdf. [13 January 2022]; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2018, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2018, United Nations, pp. 11-12. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2018/GLOTiP_2018_BOOK_web_small.pdf. [13 January 2022]; The Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking in Persons in Humanitarian Crises, pp. 1-2. Available from: https://icat.un.org/sites/g/files/tmzbdl461/files/publications/icat-ib-02-final.pdf. [13 January 2022].
10Global Protection Cluster Anti-Trafficking Task Team 2020, An Introductory Guide to Anti-Trafficking Action in Internal Displacement Contexts, Global Protection Cluster, pp. 1-2. Available from: https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/wp-content/uploads/Introductory-Guide-on-Anti-Trafficking-in-IDP-Contexts_2020_FINAL-1.pdf. [13 January 2022]; Smith, A, Datta, MN & Bales, K 2022, ‘Contemporary slavery in armed conflict: Introducing the CSAC dataset, 1989–2016’, Journal of Peace Research, pp. 1-11. Available from: https://www.csac.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/CSAC-Article-FINAL.pdf. [20 September 2022].
11Siegfried, K 2022, ‘Ukraine crisis creates new trafficking risks’, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 13 April. Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2022/4/62569be24/ukraine-crisis-creates-new-trafficking-risks.html. [20 September 2022]; Fallon, K 2022, ‘Children going missing amid chaos at Ukrainian border, aid groups report’, The Guardian, 12 March. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/mar/12/children-going-missing-amid-chaos-at-ukraine-border-report-aid-groups-refugees. [20 September 2022].
12Fallon, K, Cundy, A & Crean, R 2022, ‘Vigilantes stalk Ukraine border as sex traffickers target fleeing women and children’, 24 March. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/mar/24/vigilantes-stalk-ukraine-border-as-sex-traffickers-target-fleeing-women-and-children. [13 April 2022].
13Tondo, L 2022, ‘Ukraine prosecutors uncover sex trafficking ring preying on women fleeing country’, 7 July 2022. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jul/07/ukraine-prosecutors-uncover-sex-trafficking-ring-preying-on-women-fleeing-country. [12 July 2022]; Europol 2022, Human traffickers luring Ukrainian refugees on the web targeted in EU-wide hackathon. Available from: https://www.europol.europa.eu/media-press/newsroom/news/human-traffickers-luring-ukrainian-refugees-web-targeted-in-eu-wide-hackathon. [12 July 2022].
14United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 2022, ‘Afghanistan: Taliban attempting to steadily erase women and girls from public life – UN experts’, United Nations, 17 January. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/01/afghanistan-taliban-attempting-steadily-erase-women-and-girls-public-life-un. [12 July 2022].
152023, ‘About the Genocide’, Nadias Initiative. Available from: https://www.nadiasinitiative.org/the-genocide
16Hagedourn, E 2020, ‘Rescuers scour Syria for Yazidis still trapped in enslavement’, Middle East Eye, 4 March. Available from: https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/its-making-my-mission-harder-rescuers-search-yazidis-sold. [28 April 2022]; Arraf, J & Khaleel, S 2021, ‘3,000 Yazidis Are Still Missing. Their Families Know Where Some of Them Are.’, The New York Times, 3 October. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/03/world/middleeast/yazidis-missing-isis.html. [11 March 2022].
17Denereaz, K 2021, ‘‘Still going through hell’: the search for Yazidi women seven years on’, The Guardian, 3 August. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/aug/03/still-going-through-hell-the-search-for-yazidi-women-seven-years-on. [28 April 2022].
18Global Protection Cluster Anti-Trafficking Task Team 2020, An Introductory Guide to Anti-Trafficking Action in Internal Displacement Contexts, Global Protection Cluster, pp. 1-2. Available from: https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/wp-content/uploads/Introductory-Guide-on-Anti-Trafficking-in-IDP-Contexts_2020_FINAL-1.pdf. [13 January 2022].
19David, F, Bryant, K & Joudo Larsen, J 2019, Migrants and their vulnerability to human trafficking, modern slavery and forced labour, International Organization for Migration, pp. 26-32. Available from: https://cdn.minderoo.com.au/content/uploads/2019/08/28110623/2533_walk.free_.V8_190723_Digital_P.pdf. [13 January 2022]; United Nations General Assembly 2021, Nexus between displacement and contemporary forms of slavery: Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences A/HRC/48/52, United Nations, pp. 5-9. Available from: https://undocs.org/A/HRC/48/52. [28 October 2021]; International Organization for Migration 2015, Addressing Human Trafficking and Exploitation in Times of Crisis- Evidence and Recommendations for Further Action to Protect Vulnerable and Mobile Populations, pp. 10-13. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/books/addressing-human-trafficking-and-exploitation-times-crisis-evidence-and-recommendations-0. [3 November 2021]; Beise, J, Hansen, C, Healy, L, Lee, S, Lindt, N, Pei, Y & You, D 2020, LOST AT HOME: The risks and challenges for internally displaced children and the urgent actions needed to protect them, United Nations Children’s Fund, p. 2. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-06/Lost-at-home-risks-and-challenges-for-IDP-children-2020.pdf. [3 November 2021]; Bharadwaj, R, Bishop, D, Hazra, S, Pufaa, E & Annan, JK 2021, Climate-induced migration and modern slavery: A toolkit for policy-makers, Anti-Slavery International & International Institute for Environment and Development, pp. 6-34. Available from: https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/ClimateMigrationReportSep2021_low_res.pdf. [7 June 2022].
20Surveys were conducted between September 2017 and October 2018.
21International Organization for Migration, International Labour Organization & Walk Free 2022, No escape: Assessing the relationship between slavery-related abuse and internal displacement in Nigeria, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, pp. ii-viii. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/No-Escape-relationship-slavery-abuse-internal-displacement.pdf. [15 March 2023].
22As above.
23United Nations Security Council 2020, Children and armed conflict in Nigeria: Report of the Secretary-General S/2020/652, pp. 2-13. Available from: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N20/172/67/PDF/N2017267.pdf?OpenElement. [13 January 2022]; United Nations Security Council 2017, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Nigeria S/2017/304, pp. 4-14. Available from: https://www.undocs.org/S/2017/304. [20 August 2019].
24International Organization for Migration, International Labour Organization & Walk Free 2022, No escape: Assessing the relationship between slavery-related abuse and internal displacement in Nigeria, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, p. vii-viii. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/No-Escape-relationship-slavery-abuse-internal-displacement.pdf. [15 March 2023].
25Obaji, P, Bukkar, J, Gambo, S, Aloma, H, Jetem, B & Amos, O 2020, Assessment of Trafficking Risks in Internally Displaced Persons Camps in North-East Nigeria, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, pp. 4-6. Available from: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/75273. [10 November 2021]; International Organization for Migration, International Labour Organization & Walk Free 2022, No escape: Assessing the relationship between slavery-related abuse and internal displacement in Nigeria, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, p. vii. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/No-Escape-relationship-slavery-abuse-internal-displacement.pdf. [15 March 2023].
26See David, F, Bryant, K & Joudo Larsen, J 2019, Migrants and their vulnerability to human trafficking, modern slavery and forced labour, International Organization for Migration. Available from: https://cdn.minderoo.com.au/content/uploads/2019/08/28110623/2533_walk.free_.V8_190723_Digital_P.pdf. [13 January 2022]; United Nations General Assembly 2021, Nexus between displacement and contemporary forms of slavery: Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences A/HRC/48/52, United Nations. Available from: https://undocs.org/A/HRC/48/52. [28 October 2021]; International Organization for Migration 2015, Addressing Human Trafficking and Exploitation in Times of Crisis- Evidence and Recommendations for Further Action to Protect Vulnerable and Mobile Populations. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/books/addressing-human-trafficking-and-exploitation-times-crisis-evidence-and-recommendations-0. [3 November 2021]; Beise, J, Hansen, C, Healy, L, Lee, S, Lindt, N, Pei, Y & You, D 2020, LOST AT HOME: The risks and challenges for internally displaced children and the urgent actions needed to protect them, United Nations Children’s Fund. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-06/Lost-at-home-risks-and-challenges-for-IDP-children-2020.pdf. [3 November 2021]; Bharadwaj, R, Bishop, D, Hazra, S, Pufaa, E & Annan, JK 2021, Climate-induced migration and modern slavery: A toolkit for policy-makers, Anti-Slavery International & International Institute for Environment and Development, pp. 6-34. Available from: https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/ClimateMigrationReportSep2021_low_res.pdf. [7 June 2022]; International Organization for Migration, International Labour Organization & Walk Free 2022, No escape: Assessing the relationship between slavery-related abuse and internal displacement in Nigeria, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/No-Escape-relationship-slavery-abuse-internal-displacement.pdf. [15 March 2023].
27Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre 2022, Global Report on Internal Migration 2022: Children and youth in internal displacement, pp. 11-16. Available from: https://www.internal-displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/IDMC_GRID_2022_LR.pdf. [22 August 2022].
28International Review of the Red Cross 2019, ‘Testimonies of former child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’, Children and War, vol. 101, no. 911, pp. 445-457. Available from: https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/pdf/1590391258/irc101_2/S1816383119000481a.pdf. [5 April 2023].
29CrisisInSight 2022, Humanitarian Access Overview (December 2022), ACAPS, pp. 3-10. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/crisisinsight-humanitarian-access-overview-december-2022#:~:text=ACAPS’%20Humanitarian%20Access%20Overview%20provides,%2C%20subnational%2C%20and%20regional%20levels. [4 April 2023].
30Global Protection Cluster Anti-Trafficking Task Team 2020, An Introductory Guide to Anti-Trafficking Action in Internal Displacement Contexts, Global Protection Cluster, pp. 1-2. Available from: https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/wp-content/uploads/Introductory-Guide-on-Anti-Trafficking-in-IDP-Contexts_2020_FINAL-1.pdf. [13 January 2022].
31Global Protection Cluster 2022, Protection Issues. Available from: https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/protection-issues. [20 September 2022].
32Delta 8.7 2021, Crisis Policy Guide, United Nations University, p. 25. Available from: http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:8065/Delta87_CrisisPolicyGuide.pdf. [17 January 2022]; Curbelo, V 2021, ‘Exploring the relationship between humanitarian emergencies and human trafficking: A narrative review’, Journal of Modern Slavery, Slavery and Humanitarian Response Supplemental, vol. 6, issue 3. Available from: https://slavefreetoday.org/journal_of_modern_slavery/v6i3a2_Exploring_the_Relationship_Between_Humanitarian_Emergencies_and_%20Human_Trafficking_A_Narrative_Review_Curbelo.pdf. [5 April 2023].
33Walk Free’s Promising Practices Database was created in 2015 to collate evaluations of anti-slavery and counter trafficking programs in a searchable format, so that stakeholders can quickly identify what works – and what does not – through a simple search by country, target population, type or sector of slavery, or type of intervention. Available from: https://www.walkfree.org/projects/promising-practices/.
34Mvumi, BM, Pratt, M & Robson, H 2007, Second Joint Donor Review of International Organization for Migration (IOM) Programmes on Emergency Assistance to Mobile and Vulnerable Populations in Zimbabwe, Humanitarian Assistance to Returned Migrants and Mobile Populations at the South Africa-Zimbab. Available from: https://returnandreintegration.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl341/files/documents/IOM%2C%20Review%20of%20IOM%20Programmes%20on%20Emergency%20Assistance%20in%20Zimbabwe%2C%202007.pdf. [21 July 2022]; Child Soldiers International 2004, Final Report – Project of Reintegration of Child Soldiers in Angola, Christian Childrens Fund, Child Soldiers International, London; Fauth, G & Daniels, B 2001, Youth Reintegration Training and Education for Peace (YRTEP) Program: Sierra Leone, 2000-2001. Impact Evaluation. Available from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED466970. [21 July 2022]; Boothby, N 2006, ‘What happens when child soldiers grow up? The Mozambique case study’, Intervention, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 244-259. Available from: https://oce.ovid.com/article/01198282-200611000-00006/HTML. [21 July 2022].
35Delta 8.7 2021, Crisis Policy Guide, United Nations University, p. 25. Available from: http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:8065/Delta87_CrisisPolicyGuide.pdf. [17 January 2022]; United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund & Child Soldiers International 2019, Practical guide: To fulfil the reintegration needs and rights of girls formerly associated with armed forces and armed groups in South Sudan, United Nations Children’s Fund, pp. 19-79. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/southsudan/media/2296/file/UNICEF-South-Sudan-Practical-Guide-Reintegration-Girls-2019.pdf. [21 July 2022]; O’Neil, S & Broeckhven, KV 2018, Cradled by Conflict: Child involvement with armed groups in contemporary conflict, United Nations University, p. 3. Available from: https://unu.edu/children-and-extreme-violence. [21 July 2022]; De La Soudiere, M 2017, What the Girls Say: Improving practices to reintegrate girls in DRC, Child Soldiers International, pp. 27-56. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2017_DRC_Report_-_ENGLISH_-_Online_PDF.pdf. [21 July 2022]; Cotorcea, S 2017, Reintegrating Girls and Boys Formerly Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups: A case study from Central African Republic (CAR), Plan International, p. 3. Available from: https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/13869/pdf/reintegrating_children_from_armed_forces_and_groups_in_car.pdf. [21 July 2022]; Littman, R 2017, ‘Insights from Social Science on Child Trajectories Into and Out of Non-state Armed Groups’, in SONaKV Broeckhven (ed), Cradled by Conflict: Child involvement with armed groups in contemporary conflict United Nations University, New York. Available from: https://collections.unu.edu/view/UNU:6290. [21 July 2022]; International, CS 2016, If I could go to school… Education as a tool to prevent the recruitment of girls and assist with their recovery and reintegration in Democratic Republic of Congo, pp. 6-12. Available from: https://www.refworld.org/docid/5845375f4.html. [21 July 2022].
36United Nations Human Rights Council 2017, Resolution adopted by the Human Rights Council on 22 June 2017 A/HRC/RES/35/16, United Nations, pp. 1-6. Available from: https://www.right-docs.org/doc/a-hrc-res-35-16/. [21 July 2022].
37United Nations General Assembly 2019, Child, early and forced marriage in humanitarian settings: Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights A/HRC/41/19, pp. 10-15. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/hrc/regular-sessions/session41/list-reports. [21 July 2022].
38Joint Statement: World Day Against Trafficking in Persons 2022, ‘The international community must strengthen prevention and accountability for trafficking in persons in conflict situations’, United Nations Human Rights Special Procedures, 29 July 2022. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/trafficking/statements/2022-07-29/2022-7-29-2022-World-day-against-trafficking-final-joint-statement.pdf. [20 September 2022].
39As above.
40International Organization for Migration, International Labour Organization & Walk Free 2022, No escape: Assessing the relationship between slavery-related abuse and internal displacement in Nigeria, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, pp. 69-70. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/No-Escape-relationship-slavery-abuse-internal-displacement.pdf. [15 March 2023].
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